Sunspots

Sunspots are dark, planet-sized regions that appear on the 'surface' of the sun . Sunspots are dark because they are colder than the areas around them.A large sunspot might have a temperature of about 4000K ( 3700 C ) ,This is much lower than the  5500 C temperature of the bright photosphere that surrounds the sunspots.

The largest sunspots observed have had diameters of about 60000 km, which makes them large enough to be seen with the naked eye. Sunspots often come in groups with as many as 100 in a group, though sunspot groups with more than about 10 are relatively rare. There are well established methods for measuring the number of sunspots.

Sunspots are only dark in contrast to the bright face of the sun. If you could cut an average sunspot out of the sun and place it in the night sky, it would be about as bright as a full moon. Sunspots have a lighter outer section called the penumbra, and a darker middle region named the umbra.

Sunspots are caused by the Sun's magnetic field welling up to the photosphere, the Sun's visible "Surface" The powerful magnetic fields around sunspots produce active region on the Sun., which often lead to solar flares and Coronal Mass Ejections. the solar activity of flares and Coronal Mass Ejections are called " solar storms"

Our sun is not the only star with spots. astronomers have been able to detect " starspots"  , " sunspots" on other stars.

sunspots are observed with land-based and Earth-orbiting solar telescopes. These telescopes use filtration and projection techniques for direct observation, in addition various types of filtered cameras. Specialized tools such as spectroscopes and spectrohelioscopes are used to examine sunspots and sunspot areas. Artificial eclipses allow viewing of the circumference of the sun as sunspots rotate through the horizon. 

Black holes

Black holes are the evolutionary endpoints of stars at least 10 to 15 times as massive as the sun. If a stare that massive or larger undergoes a supernova explosion, it may leave behind a fairly massive burned out stellar remnant. With no outward forces to oppose gravitational forces, the remnant will collapse in on itself. The star eventually collapses to the point of zero volume and infinite density. Creating what is known as a singularity around the singularity is a region where the force of gravity is so strong that not even light can escape. Thus, no information can reach us from this region. It is therefore called a black hole.

Astronomers have identified numerous stellar black hole candidates, and have also found evidence of ‘Supermassive black holes’ at the center of galaxies. In 1998, astronomers found compelling evidence that a supermassive black hole of more than 2 million solar masses is located near the Sagittarius A’ region in the center of the Milky way galaxy, and more recent results using additional data find evidence that the supermassive black hole is more than 4 million solar masses.

Once a black hole has formed. It can continue to grow by absorbing additional matter. Any black hole will continually absorb gas and interstellar dust from its direct surroundings and omnipresent cosmic background radiation. This is the primary process through which supermassive black holes seem to have grown. A similar process has been suggested for the formation of intermediate-mass black holes in globular clusters.

Another possibility is for a black hole to merge with other objects such as stars or even other black holes. This is thought to have been important especially for the early development of supermassive black holes, which are thought to have formed for the coagulation of many smaller objects. The process has also been proposed as the origin of some intermediate –mass black holes.

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Galaxies

Galaxies are large systems of stars and interstellar matter, typically containing several million to some trillion stars, of masses between several million and several trillion times that of our sun, of an extension of a few thousands to several 100000s light years. typically separated by millions of light years distance. They come in a variety of flavors: Spiral, lenticular, elliptical and irregular. Besides simple stars, they typically contain various types of star clusters and nebulae..

We live in a giant spiral galaxy, The Milky Way Galaxy, of 100000 light years diameter and a mass of roughly a trillion solar masses, our sun is one of  several 100 billions of stars of the Milky Way. The nearest dwarf galaxies, satellites of the Milky way, are only a few 100000 light years distant , while the nearest giant neighbor, the Andromeda Galaxy (M31), also a spiral, is about 2-3 million light years distant.

There are probably more than 170 billion galaxies in the observable universe most galaxies are 1000 to 100000 parsecs in diameter and are usually separated  by distances on the order of millions of parsecs Intergalactic space is filled with a tenuous gas of an average density  less than one atom per cubic meter. the majority of galaxies are organized into a hierarchy of associations called clusters, which, in turn, can form lager groups called super clusters. these large structures are generally arranged into sheets and filaments, which surround immense voids in the universe.

How big is the Galaxy

Although it is not yet understood, dark matter appears to account for around 90% of the mass of most galaxies. observational data suggests that super massive black holes may exists at the center of many, if not all, galaxies. They are proposed to be the primary cause of active galactic nuclei found at the core of some galaxies. The milky way galaxy appears to harbor at least one such object within its nucleus.

At present, most star information occurs in smaller galaxies where cool gas is not so depleted. Spiral galaxies, like the Milky way only produce new generations of stars as long as they have dense molecular clouds of interstellar hydrogen in their spiral arms. Elliptical galaxies are already largely devoid of this gas, and so form no new star forming material is finite: once stars have converted the available supply of hydrogen into heavier elements, new star formation will come to an end.

The current era of star formation is expected to continue for up to one hundred billion years, and then the "stellar age" will wind down after about ten trillion to one hundred trillion years. as the smallest, longest-lived stars in our astrosphere, tiny red dwarfs, begin to fade. At the end of the stellar age, galaxies will be composed of compact objects; brown dwarfs, white dwarfs that are cooling  or cold,neutron stars, and black holes. Eventually, as a result of gravitational relaxation, all stars will either fall into central supermassive black holes or be flung into intergalactic space as a result of collisions.

Wave Power

Ocean waves are caused by the wind as it blows across the sea. Waves are a powerful source of energy.

Wave power devices extract energy directly from surface waves or from pressure fluctuations below the surface. Renewable energy analysts believe there is enough energy in the ocean waves to provide up to 2 terawatts of electricity.

Wave power cannot be harnessed everywhere. Wave power rich areas of the world include the western coasts of Scotland, northern Canada, Southern Africa, Australia and the northwestern coasts of US. In the Pacific Northwest alone, it’s feasible that wave energy could produce 40-70 KW per meter of western coastline.

The Agucadoura Wave Farm was the world’s first attempt at a commercial wave farm. It was located 5km offshore near povoa de Varzim north Oporto in Portugal. The farm was design to use three pelamis wave energy converters to convert the motion of the ocean surface waves into electricity, totaling 2.25MW in total installed capacity.

There are several methods of getting energy from waves. Wave energy can be converted into electricity through both offshore and onshore systems.

Offshore system

Offshore systems are situated in deep water, typically of more than 40 meters. Sophisticated mechanisms … like the Salter Duck … use the bobbing motion of the waves to power a pump that creates electricity. Other offshore devices use hoses connected to floats that ride the waves. The rise and fall of the float stretches and relaxes the hose, which pressurizes the water, which, in turn, rotates a turbine. Specially built seagoing vessels can also capture the energy of offshore waves. These floating platforms create electricity by funneling waves through internal turbines and then back into the sea.

Onshore System 

Built along shorelines, onshore wave power systems extract the energy in braking waves. Onshore system technologies include the following.

1.  Pendulor device

2. Tapchan

3. Oscillating water column 

Few Videos ( wave power)










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Hydraulic power

Ancient civilizations used rivers to drive numerous mechanisms such as grain mills. With the advent of turbine technologies. Man discovered a way to convert kinetic energy in moving water to mechanical power.

Hydraulic power, Hydropower is power that is derived from the force or energy of moving water, which may be harnessed for useful purposes. Prior to the widespread availability of commercial eclectic power, hydropower was used for irrigation, and operation of various machines, such as watermills, textile machines, sawmills, dock cranes, and domestic lifts.

Another mothered used a tromp to produce compressed air from falling water, which could then be used to power other machinery at a distance from the water.

In hydrology, hydropower is manifested in the force of the water on the riverbed and banks of a river. It is particularly powerful when the river is in flood. The force of the water results in the removal of sediment and other materials from the river bed and banks of the river, causing erosion and other alterations.

Hydropower is cheap, non-polluting. And many small facilities (less than 30MW) are considered renewable energy sources. Unlike other sources of energy like nuclear power, the costs of large scale plants is declining because the facilities have been paid for by federal or state projects. Dams and reservoirs also provide recreational opportunities. Flood control, irrigation, refuges for wildlife, water supply, and transportation.

In the US the first hydropower plant was built in 1880 in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Large scale construction of these power plants occurred in the 1930s and 40s as a part of Franklin D Roosevelt’s New Deal” programs. These efforts were intended to provide electricity to remote areas of the country where private utility companies were absent. Since rivers are abundant, hydroelectricity is widely used by both rural and urban settlements.

To date US has developed only 20% of its hydropower potential. Although hydropower is non-polluting construction of new facilities is highly controversial because of environmental and social impacts. The best location for plants is often in mountainous or rainy areas where ecosystems are fragile and often protected. Yet, new hydropower projects do not necessarily require construction since only 2400 of 80000 dams are used for this type of energy generation. New technology along with upgrades in current plants can increase efficiency and create energy sources without disrupting more lands. 

Wind power

Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into useful form energy, such as using wind turbines to make electricity, wind mills for mechanical power, wind pumps for pumping water or drainage.

We have used wind as an energy source for a long time, The Babylonians and Chinese were using wind power to pump water for irrigating corps 4000 yrs ago, and sailing boats were around long before that. Wind power was used in middle ages, in Europe, to grind corn.

The sun heats our atmosphere unevenly, so some patches become warmer than others. These warm patches of air rise, other air blows in to replace them and we feel a wind blowing…. We can use the energy in the wind by building tall tower, with a large propeller on the top.. The wind blows the propeller around, which turns generator produce electricity. We tend to build many of these towers together, to make a “wind Farm” and produce more electricity. The more towers, the more wind, and the larger the propellers, the more electricity we can make. 

At the end of 2009, worldwide nameplate capacity of wind powered generators was 159 GW Energy production was 340 TWh , which is about 2% of worldwide electricity usage , and has doubled in the past 3yrs. Several countries  have achieved  relatively high levels of  wind power penetration, such as 20% of stationary electricity production in Denmark , 14% in Ireland and Portugal , 11% in Spain , and 8% in Germany in 2009 As of may 2009 , 80 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis.

Solar power

From magnifying glasses to steam engines, scientists through the centuries have found innovative ways to harness the power of the sun. Converting more solar power into electricity is high on the political agenda in many countries, amid the push to find domestic energy sources that are less polluting than fossil fuels.

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, commercial CSP (concentrated solar power) plants developed in the 1980s, and the 354 MW SEGS CSP installations is the largest solar power plant in the world and is located in Mojave Desert in California.

The 80 MW Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant in Canada, is the world’s largest Photovoltaic Plant.

Despite rapid growth in recent years , solar power accounts for less than 1% of US electricity use. Solar power is more entrenched in European countries such as Spain and Germany, Which have promoted its development with strong incentives called feed in tariffs, which require electric utilities to buy solar power at a high . Fixed price. 

There are several ways to use the sun’s power to generate electricity. One of the most promising is called concentrating solar power. This involves using mirrors to reflect and focus the sun’s rays, providing heat, which in turn helps power a generator. Another is Photovoltaic panels, such as the displays on the rooftops of the homes and office buildings.

Solar energy is not available at night, making energy storage an important issue in order to provide the continuous availability of energy. Solar power is a Intermittent energy source. meaning that all available output must be taken when it is available and either stored for when it can be used, or transported , over transmission lines, to where it can be used.

Solar power can be stored at high temperature using molten salts. Salts are an effective storage medium because they are low cost, have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. 

Nuclear power

Nuclear power is generated using uranium, which is metal mined in various parts of world. The first large- sc ale nuclear power station opened at Calder hall in Cambria , England , in 1956.Some military ships and submarines have nuclear power plants for engines. In 2009 , 13-14% of the world’s electricity came from  nuclerpower,Also , more than 150 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion have been built , and produces huge amounts of energy from small amounts of fuel , without the pollution that get from burning fossil fuels.

Nuclear fusion reactions have the potential to be safer and generate less radioactive waste than fission. These reactions appear potentially visible, through technically quite difficult and have yet to be created on a scale that could be used in a functional power plant. Fusion power has been under intense theoretical and experimental investigation since the 1950s.

Installed nuclear capacity initially rose relatively quickly, rising from less than 1 gigawatt  (GW)  in 1960 to 100GW in the late 1970s ,and 300 GW in the late 1980s . Since the late 1980s worldwide capacity has risen much more slowly, reaching 360 GW in 2005, between around 1970 and 1990, more than 50 GW capacities was under construction in 2005; around 25 GW of new capacity was planned. More than two-thirds of all nuclear plants ordered after January 1970m were eventually cancelled. A total of 63 nuclear units were canceled in the USA between 1975 and 80.

During 1970 and 1980s rising economic costs and falling fossil fuel prices made nuclear power plants then under construction less attractive. In the 1980s and 1990s, flat load growth and electricity liberalization also made the addition of large new base load capacity unattractive.

The 1973 oil crisis  had a significant effect on countries , such as France and Japan , which had relied more heavily  on oil for electric generation  to invest in nuclear power today , nuclear power supplies about 80% and 30% of the electricity in those countries , respectively…

Nanotechnology

Imagine a world where microscopic medical implants patrol our arteries, diagnosing ailments and fighting diseases. Where military battle-suits deflect explosions, where computer chips are not bigger than specks of dust.

Many incredible claims have been made about the future’s nanotechnology cal applications, but what exactly does nano mean, and why has controversy plagued this emerging technology?

Nanotechnology is science and engineering at the scale of atoms and molecules. it is the manipulation and use of materials and devices so tiny that nothing can be built any smaller.

Nanomaterials are typically between 0.1 and 100 nanometers (nm) in size with 1 nm being equlent to one billionth of a meter.

This is the scale at which the basic functions of the biological world operate and materials of this size display unusual physical and chemical properties. These profoundly different properties are due to an increase in surface area compared to volume as particles get smaller – and also the grip of weird quantum effects at the atomic scale.

The  idea of nanotechnology was born in 1959 when physicist Richard Feynman gave a lecture exploring the idea  of building things at the atomic  and molecular scale. He imagined the entire Encyclopedia Britannica written on the head of a pin. However, experimental nanotechnology didn’t come into its own until 1981 when IBM scientist in Zurich, Switzerland, built the first Scanning tunneling Microscope.  

English cinema

U.K has had a large impact on modern cinema and has one of the most respected film industries  in the world. The British film industry has produced some of the greatest actors, directors and motion pictures of all time including

• Sir Alfred Hitchcock
• Powell and pressburger
• Sir David lean
• Sir Laurence Olivier
• Sir john Gielgud

UK film production has experienced a number of booms and recessions. Although many factors can be used to measure the success of the industry, the number of British films produced each year gives an overview of its development.

Many Hollywood films with a British dimension have had enormous worldwide commercial success. six of the top seven highest grossing films worldwide of all time have some British Historical, cultural or creative dimensions.

• Titanic
• The Lord of the Rings
• Pirates of the Caribbean
• Harry Potter Movies.

British Special effects technicians and production designers are known for creating visual effects  at a far lower cost than their counterparts in the US, as seen in Time Bandits and Brazil (1981-85). This reputation has continued through the 1990s and into the 21^st century with films such as the James Bond series, Gladiator and Harry Potter..

Harry potter 7

Bollywood Cinema

Bollywood is the informal term popularly used for the Hindi language film industry based in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India.. Bollywood is formally referred to as Hindi cinema; through frequent use of poetic Urdu words is fairly common, also growing presence of Indian English in dialogue and songs. it is common to see films that feature dialogue with English words phrases, or even whole sentences.

The 2000s saw a growth in bollywood’s popularity in the world. This led the nation’s filmmaking to new heights in terms of quality, cinematography and innovative story lines as well as technical advances in areas such as animation, special effects..Etc..Yash film and dharma productions were the producers of new modern films

       Films

• Devdas
• Slumdog  Millionaire
• Koi Mil Gaya
• My name is khan 

      Popular actors

• Hrithik Roshan
• Sharuk Khan
• Abhishake Bachchan

       Actress

• Aishwarya Rai
• Preity Zinta
• Rani Mukerji

For the last few decades  Bollywood producers have been releasing the film’s sound track , as tapes or CDs ,before the main Movie realize, hoping that the music will pull audience into the cinema later. Often the soundtrack is more popular than the movie, in the last few years some producers have also been releasing music videos, usually featuring a song from the film.

Slumdog  Millionaire ( Jai Ho)

Biggest Hole of America

The cinema of the U.S has had a profound effect on cinema across the world since the early 20^th century. It’s history is sometimes separated into four main periods: the silent film era, classical Hollywood cinema. New Hollywood, and the contemporary period. Since the 1920s, the American film industry has grossed more money every year than that of any other country.

During the so-called Golden age of Hollywood, which lasted from the end of the silent era in American cinema in the late 1920s to the late 1950s, thousands of movies were issued from the Hollywood studios

The drive to produce a spectacle on the movie screen has largely shaped American cinema ever since. Spectacular epics which took advantage of new widescreen processes had been increasingly popular from the 1950s onwards. Since then, American films have become increasingly divided into two categories. Blockbusters and independent films. Studios have focused on relying on a handful of extremely expensive releases every year in order to remain profitable. Such blockbusters emphasize spectacle, star power, and high production value , all of which entail and enormous budget. Blockbusters typically rely upon star power and massive advertising to attract a huge audience. A successful blockbuster will attract an audience large enough to offset production costs and reap considerable profits. Such production carry a substantial risk of failure, and most studios release blockbusters that both over and underperform in a year. 

Transformers 3 Shoot Chicago

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